Vitamin PP (nicotinic acid, niacin; nicotinamide (nicotinamidum)

Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics

Nicotinamide - what is it?

Vitamin remedy Nicotinamide has a structure close to nicotinic acid . Its synonyms also include vitamin PP .

This substance is an important component necessary for the full course of redox processes occurring in the cell. The vitamin also takes part in the metabolism of fats, amino acids, purines, proteins, tissue respiration and glycogenolysis . At the same time, there is no pronounced vasodilating effect, redness and irritation on the skin, or “flushes” of blood. In addition, the drug has an antipellagritic effect. Nicotinamide is characterized by rapid absorption and metabolism.

Medical use[edit]

Niacin deficiency[edit]

Nicotinamide is the preferred treatment for pellagra caused by niacin deficiency. [4] Although niacin can be used, nicotinamide does not cause skin redness. [4]

Acne [edit]

Nicotinamide cream is used to treat acne. [5] It has anti-inflammatory effects, which may benefit people with inflammatory skin conditions. [15]

Nicotinamide increases ceramide biosynthesis in human keratinocytes in vitro and improves the epidermal permeability barrier in vivo. [16] Topical nicotinamide 2% for 2 and 4 weeks was effective in reducing the rate of sebum production. [17] Nicotinamide prevents Cutibacterium-induced acnes

activation of toll-like receptor 2, which ultimately leads to suppression of the production of pro-inflammatory interleukin-8. [18]

Skin cancer[edit]

Nicotinamide in doses of 500 to 1000 mg per day reduces the risk of skin cancers other than melanoma in high-risk individuals. [19]

Indications for use

Nicotinamide is prescribed for hypo- and avitaminosis of the RR and a high need for it associated with:

• inadequate and unbalanced nutrition;
• malabsorption;
• rapid weight loss;
• diabetes mellitus;
• prolonged fever ;
• gastrectomy;
• diseases of the hepatobiliary region - hepatitis, cirrhosis;
• hyperthyroidism;
• chronic infections;
• gastrointestinal diseases;
• malignant tumors;
• diseases of the oropharyngeal region;
• prolonged stress;
• lactation, pregnancy.

In addition, this drug is actively used in the treatment of acute alcohol conditions and addiction.

Chemistry[edit]

The structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the meta position. This is nicotinic acid amide. [6] As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and conversion of its two functional groups. Examples of these reactions described in Organic Syntheses are

involve the preparation of 2-chloronicotinonitrile in a two-step process via N-oxide, [20] [21]

from nicotinonitrile by reaction with phosphorus pentoxide, [22] and from 3-aminopyridine by reaction with sodium hypobromite solution, prepared on site

from bromine and sodium hydroxide. [23]

NAD+, the oxidized form of NADH, contains the nicotinamide moiety (circled in red)

Industrial production[edit]

Nicotinonitrile hydrolysis is catalyzed by the enzyme nitrile hydratase from Rhodococcus rhodochrous

J1,[24][25][14], producing 3500 tons of nicotinamide per year for use in animal feed.
[26] The enzyme allows for more selective synthesis as further hydrolysis of the amide to nicotinic acid is prevented. [27] [28] Nicotinamide can also be obtained from nicotinic acid. According to the Ullman Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,
31,000 tons of nicotinamide were sold worldwide in 2014 [12].

Biochemistry [edit]

The active nicotinamide group in the NAD+ molecule is subject to oxidation in many metabolic pathways.

Nicotinamide, as part of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH/NAD+) cofactor, is critical to life. In cells, nicotinamide is incorporated into NAD + and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP + ). NAD+ and NADP+ are cofactors in a wide range of enzymatic redox reactions, most notably glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. [29] If people ingest nicotinamide, it is likely to undergo a series of reactions that convert it to NAD, which can then undergo conversion to form NADP+. This method of creating NAD+ is called the rescue pathway. However, the human body can produce NAD+ from the amino acids tryptophan and niacin without taking niacinamide. [thirty]

NAD+ acts as an electron carrier that facilitates the interchange of energy between nutrients and the cell's energy currency, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In redox reactions, the active part of the cofactor is nicotinamide. In NAD+, the nitrogen in the aromatic nicotinamide ring is covalently linked to an adenine dinucleotide. The formal charge of nitrogen is stabilized by the shared electrons of the other carbon atoms in the aromatic ring. When a hydride atom is added to NAD + to form NADH, the molecule loses its aromaticity and therefore more stability. This higher energy product later releases its energy to release the hydride, and in the case of the electron transport chain, it promotes the formation of adenosine triphosphate. [31]

When one mole of NADH is oxidized, 158.2 kJ of energy is released. [31]

Biological role[edit]

Nicotinamide occurs as a component of various biological systems, including within the vitamin B family and specifically the vitamin B 3 complex. [8][9] It is also a critical part of the NADH and NAD+ structures, where N-

the substituted aromatic ring in the oxidized form of NAD+ undergoes reduction with hydride attack to form NADH. [29] The NADPH/NADP+ structures have the same ring and participate in similar biochemical reactions.

Contraindications for use

It is recommended to refrain from consuming this vitamin if:

• hypersensitivity;
• peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum.

Caution in treatment requires such disorders as:

• hemorrhages;
• diabetes;
• gout;
• glaucoma;
• hyperuricemia;
• arterial hypotension;
• liver diseases;
• hyperacid gastritis.

special instructions

In addition to taking a vitamin supplement to prevent hypovitaminosis RR , it is necessary to adhere to a balanced diet, including foods rich in this vitamin in the diet. These include: yeast, liver, egg yolk, nuts, milk, fish, meat, legumes, buckwheat, chicken, unrefined grains, ground nuts, green vegetables, protein products and so on.

As a result of heat treatment, vitamin PP is retained in milk.

Taking the vitamin requires monitoring liver function. To prevent the development of fatty liver disease, you need to supplement your diet with foods saturated with methionine , take a drug with methionine or other lipotropic drugs.

The drug is not used as a lipid-lowering agent. You can reduce the irritating effect on the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract if you take the tablets with milk.

Vitamin B3 (niacin, nicotinamide, nicotinic acid)

Vitamin B3

(
niacin, nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, vitamin PP
*) is a water-soluble vitamin from the group of B vitamins.

Basic functions and intakes of niacin (vitamin B3)

According to Methodological Recommendations MP 2.3.1.2432-08 “Norms of physiological needs for energy and nutrients for various groups of the population of the Russian Federation”, approved by Rospotrebnadzor on December 18, 2008, vitamin B3 (niacin) as a coenzyme is involved in the redox reactions of energy metabolism .
Insufficient vitamin intake is accompanied by disruption of the normal condition of the skin, gastrointestinal tract and nervous system. The average consumption in different countries is 12-40 mg/day, in the Russian Federation - 13-15 mg/day. Niacin can be synthesized from tryptophan (60 mg of tryptophan produces 1 mg of niacin). The established level of requirement in different countries is 11-25 mg/day. The upper tolerable level of niacin intake is 60 mg/day. The physiological requirement for adults is 20 mg/day. The physiological need for children is from 5 to 20 mg/day. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (official publication of the US Department of Health) recommend the following daily intakes of niacin (vitamin B3):

• children under 3 years old - 6 mg
• children from 4 to 8 years old - 8 mg
• children from 9 to 13 years old - 12 mg
• girls and women aged 14 years and older - 14 mg
• boys and men aged 14 years and older - 16 mg

With insufficient intake of vitamin B3 in the body, lethargy, apathy, fatigue, dizziness, insomnia, palpitations, pale and dry skin, and reduced resistance to infections are observed. With a severe deficiency of vitamin B3, pellagra develops - a serious disease affecting the gastrointestinal tract, skin, central and peripheral nervous system.

Nicotinamide is the international nonproprietary name of the drug

In ATC, nicotinamide is included in the “A11 Vitamins” group, the “A11HA Other pure vitamins” subgroup.
Nicotinamide code is A11HA01. Pharmacological group “Vitamins and vitamin-like products”. Nicotinamide is part of the B vitamin group (vitamin B3, or PP). It is a source of niacin, as well as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), which are coenzymes for many enzymes that catalyze redox reactions. Nicotinamide is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, normalizes intestinal motility, and is necessary for the functioning of normal intestinal microflora. Nicotinamide does not cause adverse reactions characteristic of nicotinic acid: it does not cause redness of the skin, tingling or burning sensation, hypotension, dizziness, heart rhythm disturbances, or dyspeptic symptoms. There was no connection between the use of nicotinamide and exacerbation of gastric and duodenal ulcers, or decreased glucose tolerance (Serebrova S.Yu.).

Nicotinic acid is the international nonproprietary name of the drug

In the ATC, nicotinic acid and its derivatives are included in section “C.
Drugs for the treatment of diseases of the cardiovascular system": in group "C04. Peripheral vasodilators" and have the following codes:

C04AC Nicotinic acid and its derivatives C04AC01 Nicotinic acid C04AC02 Nicotinyl alcohol (pyridylcarbinol) C04AC03 Inositol nicotinate C04AC07 Cyclonicate

to group “C10. Lipid-lowering drugs" and have the following codes:

C10AD Nicotinic acid and its derivatives C10AD01 Niceritrol C10AD02 Nicotinic acid C10AD03 Nicofuranose C10AD04 Aluminum nicotinate C10AD05 Nikonitic alcohol (pyridylcarbinol) C10AD06 Acipimox C10AD52 Nicotinic acid in combination with other drugs

Nicotinamide and nicotinic acid (niacin) as chemicals

Nicotinamide (eng. nicotinamide
) - amide of nicotinic acid, 3-pyridine carboxamide. White crystalline powder. Easily soluble in water and alcohol. Its structure and action are similar to nicotinic acid. Gross formula: C6H6N2O.

Nicotinic acid

or
niacin
). 3-Pyridinecarboxylic acid. White crystalline powder, odorless, slightly acidic taste. Slightly soluble in cold water (1:70), better in hot water (1:15), slightly soluble in ethanol, very slightly soluble in ether. Gross formula: C6NH5O2.

Indications for use of vitamin B3

Taking vitamin B3 in any form is indicated:

• in the prevention and treatment of pellagra (vitaminosis B3, vitamin deficiency PP)
• slow-healing wounds and ulcers
• gastritis with low acidity
• colitis

Nicotinamide is also recommended for:

• peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum (not in the acute stage)
• diabetes mellitus
• atherosclerosis

Nicotinic acid is also indicated for:

• Crohn's disease
• tropical sprue
• spasm of peripheral vessels
• Hartnup's disease
• Raynaud's disease
• migraine
• cerebrovascular disorders
• angina pectoris
• hypercoagulability
• neuritis of the facial nerve

Nicotinic acid (niacin) as a means of preventing heart attack and stroke?

Extended-release niacin (niacin) in men who have had a myocardial infarction increases high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels and reduces lipoprotein (a) concentrations, reducing the risk of recurrent myocardial infarction. Nicotinic acid preparations can be used in patients with low HDL cholesterol values ​​or increased lipoprotein (a) levels, but the benefit of this therapy in reducing the risk of ischemic stroke is not shown (Fonyakin A.V., Geraskina L.A.).

Sources of vitamin B3

Many foods are rich in vitamin B3: yeast, liver, nuts, egg yolk, milk, fish, chicken, meat, legumes, buckwheat, unrefined grains, green vegetables, ground nuts, flaxseed oil.
Vitamin B3 (nicotinamide or nicotinic acid) can be sold as a medicine or dietary supplement in the form of a single drug, it is also included in complex preparations, for example, Enzymtal (fungal amylase + papain + simethicone + activated carbon + nicotinamide), Cytoflavin (inosine + nicotinamide + riboflavin + succinic acid), eye drops Oftan Katahrom (adenosine + nicotinamide + cytochrome C).

Vitamin B3 is part of the vitamin and mineral complexes: Bio-Max, Complivit, Selmevit, Vitrum, Hexavit, Multi-Tabs, Vitamin and mineral complex from A to Zn (“Vitamins for adults”) and many others.

Vitamin B3 is usually included in infant formula (Kozhevnikova E.N.).

Vitamin B3 is synthesized by human intestinal bacteria, in particular Escherichia coli

.

Vitamin B3 (niacin, nicotinamide) has contraindications, side effects and application features; consultation with a specialist is necessary.

* By “vitamin B3” we mean not one substance, but several different substances that are very similar in their biochemical effects on the human body and physiology. Please note that different authors do not have 100% terminological unity. For example, in the articles of Serebrova S.Yu., Kovaleva K.A. and a number of others, the terms “vitamin B3”, “vitamin PP” and “nicotinamide” are used as synonyms. And in the article by Kivaeva I.V. and others, on the one hand, “nicotinic acid” and “vitamin PP” are considered synonyms, and on the other, “niacin” and “vitamin B3”. We do not set out to arbitrate these differences and try to avoid them as far as possible.

Nicotinamide - a means of preventing skin cancer (?)

Non-melanocytic skin cancers, such as basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas, are common cancers caused primarily by ultraviolet radiation.
Nicotinamide has been shown** to have a protective effect against damage caused by ultraviolet healing and also to reduce the incidence of new cases of precancerous photochemically active keratoses. Nitotinamide, when taken orally, is safe and effective in reducing the incidence of new cases of non-melanocytic skin cancer and photoactive keratoses in high-risk patients.** It is emphasized that the trials were conducted specifically with nicotinamide .

and not with nicotinic acid or other similar substances.***

** Andrew C. Chen AC et al. A Phase 3 Randomized Trial of Nicotinamide for Skin-Cancer Chemoprevention. N Engl J Med 2015;373:1618-26 | DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1506197. *** Damian DL et al. Nicotinamide for Skin Cancer Chemoprevention / The Melanoma Letter, A Publication of The Skin Cancer Foundation. Vol. 34, Spring 2016.

Nicotinic acid - food supplement

Nicotinic acid, as a food additive, has code E375 and is defined by SanPiN 2.3.2.1293-03 as a color stabilizer. In 2008, it was excluded from the list of permitted food additives in Russia. The reason is a lack of research data. Also, nicotinic acid does not have permission for use as a food additive in Ukraine. Back to section

Overdose

Taking high doses of the vitamin can lead to the development of: arrhythmia, dizziness, diarrhea , dry skin and mucous membranes of the eyes, hyperglycemia, glucosuria, thirst, hyperuricemia, myalgia, nausea, vomiting , and so on.

Long-term use of vitamin PP sometimes causes fatty liver degeneration and cholestasis .

Analogs

Level 4 ATC code matches:
Medobiotin

Calcium Pantothenate

Volvit

Alpha Tocopherol Acetate

Riboflavin

Pyridoxine Hydrochloride

Pyridoxine

Vitrum Vitamin E

Analogs are represented by the following drugs: Aminicotin, Benikot, Endobion, Niacevit, Bepella, Niacinamide, Nicofort, Nicotol, Nicotinic acid, Nikamide and Pelmin.

Also have a similar effect: Neurovitan, Folic acid and Bepanten.

Reviews about Nicotinamide

In most cases, reviews of Nicotinamide are left by people who take it during pregnancy or to prevent vitamin deficiency . Pregnant women note that this drug is well tolerated and highly effective. It is also often reported that taking this vitamin improves the condition, appearance and quality of hair and nails.

Nicotinamide is often included in the diet of athletes, bodybuilders and athletes. At the same time, it is described as an excellent anabolic steroid that helps quickly and effectively build muscle mass.

Thus, there are only positive opinions about this vitamin product. However, experts remind that taking the drug without indications and without consulting a doctor is not recommended.

Links[edit]

1. Entry in the GESTIS substance database of the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
2. ^ abc "Use of Niacinamide During Pregnancy". Drugs.com
   . Archived from the original on December 30, 2016. Retrieved December 29 +2016.
3. Bender D.A. (2003). Biochemistry of vitamin nutrition. Cambridge University Press. item 203. ISBN. 978-1-139-43773-8. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016.
4. ^ abcde World Health Organization (2009). Stewart M.K., Quimci M., Hill S.R. (ed.). WHO Pharmacological Model 2008
   . World Health Organization. pp. 496, 500.. HDL: 10665/44053. ISBN 9789241547659.
5. ^ abc British National Formulary: BNF 69
   (69th ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 822. ISBN 978-0-85711-156-2.
6. ^ abcdef Kniep M, Dweck IF, Moore WP, Gillmor AA, McLean AE, Bingley PJ, Gale EA (November 2000). "Safety of High-Dose Nicotinamide: A Review" (PDF). Diabetology
   .
   43
   (11): 1337–45. DOI: 10.1007/s001250051536. PMID 11126400. S2CID 24763480.
7. ^ ab MacKay D, Hathcock J, Guarneri E (June 2012). "Niacin: Chemical Forms, Bioavailability, and Health Effects." Nutrition Reviews
   .
   70
   (6): 357–66. DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00479.x. PMID 22646128.
8. ^ abc "Niacinamide: indications, side effects, warnings". Drugs.com
   . June 6, 2022. Archived August 5, 2022. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
9. ^ a b Krutmann J, Humbert P. (2010). Nutrition for Healthy Skin: Strategies for Clinical and Cosmetic Practice. Springer Science & Business Media. item 153. ISBN. 9783642122644. Archived April 10, 2022.
10. Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, Bruns DE (2012). Tietz's Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics (5th ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. item 934. ISBN 978-1-4557-5942-2. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016.
11. Sneader W (2005). Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley and Sons. item 231. ISBN. 978-0-470-01552-0. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016.
12. ^ abcd Blum, Rene (2015). "Vitamins, 11. Niacin (nicotinic acid, nicotinamide)." Vitamins, 11. Niacin (nicotinic acid, nicotinamide
    .
    Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
    (6th ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. Pp. 1–9. Doi: 10.1002/14356007.o27_o14.pub2. ISBN 978-3- 527-30385-4.
13. World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization Model List of Essential Medicines: 21st 2019 List
    . Geneva: World Health Organization. HDL: 10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2022.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
14. ^ ab Schmidberger JW, Hepworth LJ, Green AP, Flitsch SL (2015). "Enzymatic synthesis of amides". In Faber K, Fessner W, Turner NJ (eds.). Biocatalysis in organic synthesis 1
    . Science of synthesis. Georg Thieme Verlag. pp. 329–372. ISBN 9783131766113. Archived November 5, 2022.
15. Niren NM (January 2006). "Pharmacological doses of nicotinamide in the treatment of inflammatory skin conditions: a review." Kutis
    .
    77
    (1 supplement): 11–6. PMID 16871774.
16. Tan O, Ot Y, Kitamura N, Katsube T, Inoue S (September 2000). "Nicotinamide increases the biosynthesis of ceramides as well as other stratum corneum lipids to improve the epidermal permeability barrier." British Journal of Dermatology
    .
    143
    (3):524–31. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2000.03705.x. PMID 10971324. S2CID 21874670.
17. Draelos ZD, Matsubara A, Smiles K (June 2006). "Effect of 2% Niacinamide on Facial Sebum Production." Journal of Cosmetic and Laser Therapy
    .
    8
    (2): 96–101. DOI: 10.1080/14764170600717704. PMID 16766489. S2CID 36713665.
18. Kim J, Ochoa MT, Krucik SR, Takeuchi O, Uematsu S, Legaspi AJ, et al (August 2002). "Toll-like receptor 2 activation in acne induces inflammatory cytokine responses". Journal of Immunology
    .
    169
    (3):1535–41. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.3.1535. PMC 4636337. PMID 12133981.
19. Snaidr VA, Damian DL, Holliday GM (February 2019). "Nicotinamide for photoprotection and chemoprevention of skin cancer: a review of efficacy and safety". Experimental Dermatology
    . 28 Supplement 1: 15–22. DOI: 10.1111/exd.13819. PMID 30698874.
20. Taylor E.C., Crovetti A.J. (1957). "Nicotinamide-1-oxide". Organic synthesis
    .
    37
    : 63. DOI: 10.15227/orgsyn.037.0063.;
    Collection
    ,
    4
    , p. 704
21. Taylor E.C., Crovetti A.J. (1957). "2-Chloronitinonitrile". Organic synthesis
    .
    37
    : 12. DOI: 10.15227/orgsyn.037.0012.;
    Collection
    ,
    4
    , p. 166
22. Jump up
    ↑ Teague PC, Short WA (1953).
    "Nicotinonitrile". Organic synthesis
    .
    33
    : 52. DOI: 10.15227/orgsyn.033.0052.;
    Collection
    ,
    4
    , p. 706
23. Allen CF, Wolf CN (1950). "3-Aminopyridine". Organic synthesis
    .
    30
    : 3. DOI: 10.15227/orgsyn.030.0003.;
    Collection
    ,
    4
    , p. 45
24. Nagasaw T, Matthew CD, Moje J, Yamad N (July 1988). "Nitrile hydratase-catalyzed production of nicotinamide from 3-cyanopyridine in Rhodococcus rhodochrous J1". Applied and Environmental Microbiology
    .
    54
    (7):1766–9. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.54.7.1766-1769.1988. PMC 202743. PMID 16347686.
25. Hilterhaus L, Liese A (2007). "Building blocks" . In Ulber R, Sell D (eds). White biotechnology
    .
    Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology
    .
    Advances in biochemical engineering/biotechnology. 105
    . Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 133–173. DOI: 10.1007/10_033. ISBN 9783540456957. PMID 17408083. S2CID 34552222. Archived from the original on November 5, 2022.
26. Jump up
    ↑ Asano Y (2015).
    "Hydrolysis of nitriles to amides". In Faber K, Fessner W, Turner NJ (eds.). Biocatalysis in organic synthesis 1
    . Science of synthesis. Georg Thieme Verlag. pp. 255–276. ISBN 9783131766113. Archived November 5, 2022.
27. Petersen M, Keener A (1999). "Biocatalysis". Green Chem. 1
    (2):99–106. DOI: 10.1039/A809538H.
28. Servi S, TESSARO D, Hollman F (2015). "Historical Perspectives: The Path to the Future". In Faber K, Fessner W, Turner NJ (eds.). Biocatalysis in organic synthesis 1
    . Science of synthesis. Georg Thieme Verlag. pp. 1–39. ISBN 9783131766113. Archived November 5, 2022.
29. ^ a b Belenky P., Bogan K.L., Brenner S. (January 2007). "NAD+ Metabolism in Health and Disease" (PDF). Directions in Biochemical Sciences
    .
    32
    (1): 12–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2006.11.006. PMID 17161604. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2007.
30. Jump up ↑
    Williams AC, Cartwright LS, Ramsden DB (March 2005).
    "Parkinson's disease: the first common neurological disease caused by autointoxication?" . Q.J.M.
    _
    98
    (3):215–26. DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hci027. PMID 15728403.
31. ^ B Casiday R, Herman C, Frey R (September 5, 2008). "Energy for the Body: Oxidative Phosphorylation". www.chemistry.wustl.edu
    . Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis. Archived from the original on November 22, 2016. Retrieved March 14, 2022.
32. Rolfe HM (December 2014). "An Overview of Nicotinamide: Treatment of Skin Conditions and Possible Side Effects." Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology
    .
    13
    (4): 324–8. DOI: 10.1111/jocd.12119. PMID 25399625. S2CID 28160151.
33. Ranaweera, Anoma (2017). "Nicotinamide". DermNet New Zealand (www.dermnetnz.org)
    . DermNet New Zealand Trust. Archived from the original on March 25, 2022. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
34. Secretariat of the British Pharmacopoeial Commission (2009). Index, BP 2009 (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2010.
35. Japanese Pharmacopoeia (PDF) (15th ed.). 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2011. Retrieved February 4, 2010.
36. Minocha R, Damian DL, Holliday GM (January 2018). “Chemoprevention of melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer: the role of nicotinamide?” . Photodermatology, photoimmunology and photomedicine
    .
    34
    (1): 5–12. DOI: 10.1111/phpp.12328. PMID 28681504.
37. ^ a b Chen A.S., Damian D.L. (August 2014). "Nicotinamide and the skin." Australasian Journal of Dermatology
    .
    55
    (3): 169–75. DOI: 10.1111/ajd.12163. PMID 24635573. S2CID 45745255.
38. Namazi MR (August 2003). "Nicotinamide: a potential addition to the antipsoriatic weapon." FASEB Magazine
    .
    17
    (11): 1377–9. DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0002hyp. PMID 12890690. S2CID 39752891.
39. "Niacinamide Definition". NCI Drug Dictionary
    . National Cancer Institute. February 2, 2011 archiving from the original on April 28, 2015. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
40. Kaanders JH, Bussink J, van der Kogel AJ (December 2002). "ARCON: a new biological approach in radiotherapy". Lancet. Oncology
    .
    3
    (12): 728–37. DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(02)00929-4. PMID 12473514.
41. "Patient reported not to have HIV, but scientists urge caution". New York Times
    . July 7, 2022. Retrieved September 22, 2022.